Law Definations - Imposing and Limitations

Imposing

adj.
Impressive, as by virtue of size, bearing, or power: the monarch's imposing presence.  See Synonyms at grand.
 
im·posing·ly adv.
 
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.


imposing
adj
grand or impressive an imposing building
imposingly  adv
imposingness  n

Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003
 

Thesaurus
Adj. 1. imposing - impressive in appearance; "a baronial mansion"; "an imposing residence"; "a noble tree"; "severe-looking policemen sat astride noble horses"; "stately columns"
 
baronial, noble, stately
impressive - making a strong or vivid impression; "an impressive ceremony"
 
2. imposing - used of a person's appearance or behavior; befitting an eminent person; "his distinguished bearing"; "the monarch's imposing presence"; "she reigned in magisterial beauty"
 
distinguished, magisterial, grand
dignified - having or expressing dignity; especially formality or stateliness in bearing or appearance; "her dignified demeanor"; "the director of the school was a dignified white-haired gentleman"
 
Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc.

imposing
adjective impressive, striking, grand, august, powerful, effective, commanding, awesome, majestic, dignified, stately, forcible He was an imposing man.
 
ordinary, insignificant, unimposing, mean, poor, modest, petty
 
Collins Thesaurus of the English Language – Complete and Unabridged 2nd Edition. 2002 © HarperCollins Publishers 1995, 2002
 
imposing
adj imposing
making a great impression; large and handsome an imposing building.
 
Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary © 2006-2010 K Dictionaries Ltd.

limitation
n.
1. The act of limiting or the state of being limited.
2. A restriction.
3. A shortcoming or defect.
4. Law A specified period during which, by statute, an action may be brought.

The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

 limitation
n
1. something that limits a quality or achievement
2. the act of limiting or the condition of being limited
3. (Law) Law a certain period of time, legally defined, within which an action, claim, etc., must be commenced.
 
4. (Law) Property law a restriction upon the duration or extent of an estate.
 
Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003

Thesaurus
Noun    
1. limitation - a principle that limits the extent of something; "I am willing to accept certain restrictions on my movements" restriction
rule, regulation - a principle or condition that customarily governs behavior; "it was his rule to take a walk before breakfast"; "short haircuts were the regulation"

narrowness - a restriction of range or scope; "the problem with achievement tests is the narrowness they impose on students"; "the attraction of the book is precisely its narrowness of focus"; "frustrated by the narrowness of people's horizons" 

quantification - a limitation imposed on the variables of a proposition (as by the quantifiers `some' or `all' or `no')
 
restraint - a rule or condition that limits freedom; "legal restraints"; "restraints imposed on imports"

2. limitation - the quality of being limited or restricted; "it is a good plan but it has serious limitations"

disadvantage - the quality of having an inferior or less favorable position

3. limitation - the greatest amount of something that is possible or allowed; "there are limits on the amount you can bet"; "it is growing rapidly with no limitation in sight"

limit
indefinite quantity - an estimated quantity
 
peak, extremum - the most extreme possible amount or value; "voltage peak"
 
cutoff - a designated limit beyond which something cannot function or must be terminated
 
4. limitation - (law) a time period after which suits cannot be brought; "statute of limitations"
 
law, jurisprudence - the collection of rules imposed by authority; "civilization presupposes respect for the law"; "the great problem for jurisprudence to allow freedom while enforcing order"
 
time limit - a time period within which something must be done or completed
 
5. limitation - an act of limiting or restricting (as by regulation)
 
restriction
regulating, regulation - the act of controlling or directing according to rule; "fiscal regulations are in the hands of politicians"

hold-down - a limitation or constraint; "taxpayers want a hold-down on government spending"
 
freeze - fixing (of prices or wages etc) at a particular level; "a freeze on hiring"
 
clampdown - sudden restriction on an activity.
 
Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc.

load-shedding  n. 1. The act or process of disconnecting the electric current on certain lines when the demand becomes greater than the supply.

Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, published 1913 by C. & G. Merriam Co.


Thesaurus
Noun 1. load-shedding - cutting off the electric current on certain lines when the demand becomes greater than the supply restriction, limitation - an act of limiting or restricting (as by regulation)
 
Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc.

Maastricht Treaty

Maastricht Treaty stipulates the governments cannot create money, it has to borrow it.
     ==========================================  
A treaty that is responsible for the creation of the European Union, signed in Maastricht, a city in the Netherlands.  The Maastricht Treaty was signed on February 7, 1992, by the leaders of 12 member nations, and it reflected the serious intentions of all countries to create a common economic and monetary union.  Also known as the Treaty on European Union.
 
The Maastricht Treaty aimed at unifying policies of defense, currency and citizenship among all member nations.  The treaty required voters in each country to approve the European Union, which proved to be a hotly debated topic in many areas.  The agreement took effect on November 1, 1993, with the creation of the European Union and has since been amended by other treaties.

Tripartite government

The tripartite government in ancient Rome had three branches :the executive which was run by two consuls , the legislative which was run by the Roman senate , and the judicial which was run by the assembly.

     ===========================================
Tripartite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tripartite means composed of or split into three parts, or refers to three parties. Specifically, it may also refer to any of the following:

• 3 (number)
• Tripartite (theology) body, soul and spirit
• Tripartite language
• Tripartite motto
• Tripartite System in British education
• Tripartite classification of authority
• A Tripartite Contract or agreement; between three parties
• Historiae Ecclesiasticae Tripartitae Epitome, a medieval church history book, also known as Tripartite History

Political:

• Tripartite Agreement of 1936, an international monetary agreement entered into by the United States, France, and Great Britain to stabilize their nations' currencies.
• Tripartite Pact between the Axis Powers of World War II
• Britain–India–Nepal Tripartite Agreement, signed in 1947 concerning the rights of Gurkhas in military service.
• Tripartite Declaration of 1950, signed by the United States, Britain, and France to guarantee the territorial status quo determined by Arab–Israeli armistice agreements
• Three-parties - the "Three-parties alliance", or Tripartisme, a coalition government in France after World War 2
• Madrid Accords, signed by Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania in 1975 to end Spanish presence in the territory of Spanish Sahara
• The Tripartite Accord (Lebanon), signed on 28 December 1985 between three factions to end the Lebanese Civil War
• The Tripartite Accord (Angola), signed between Cuba, Angola and South Africa on 22 December 1988 to end the Angolan Civil War
• Tripartite Alliance, (redirects to African National Congress)
• Tripartism, or Tripartite consultations, between representatives of the government, workers and employers

Other:

• Tripartite class minehunter, a ship
• Tripartite Bridge

May refer to:

• The tripartite periodization of history into ancient, Middle Ages and modern. See Middle Age for more information.
• The European Tripartite Programme, a trilingual engineering formation.

De Facto - Police Code Of Conduct, everything is oppisite to De Jure

Defacto - illegal or illegitimate, without lawful title

(De Facto, unlawful-Criminal) de facto government, so every other corporation is autamatically fall into de facto - Police Code Of Conduct, if every police officer is acting in de facto,  Everything is the opposite to (De Jure, Lawful)
     =========================================== 

POLICY is WITCHCRAFT

Communication with the dead

De facto - Concerning fact, in practice, in law

De jure (which means "concerning the law") when referring to matters of law, governance,

De Facto, Police 

SCHEDULE 1
 
De Facto, CODE OF CONDUCT 

Regulation 3

Honesty and integrity
1. It is of paramount importance that the public has faith in the honesty and integrity of police officers.  Officers should therefore be open and truthful in their dealings; avoid being improperly beholden to any person or institution; and discharge their duties with integrity.

Fairness and impartiality
2. Police officers have a particular responsibility to act with fairness and impartiality in all their dealings with the public and their colleagues.

Politeness and tolerance
3. Officers should treat members of the public and colleagues with courtesy and respect, avoiding abusive or deriding attitudes or behaviour.  In particular, officers must avoid: favouritism of an individual or group; all forms of harassment, victimisation or unreasonable discrimination; and overbearing conduct to a colleague, particularly to one junior in rank or service.

Use of force and abuse of authority
4. Officers must never knowingly use more force than is reasonable, nor should they abuse their authority.

Performance of duties
5. Officers should be conscientious and diligent in the performance of their duties.  Officers should attend work promptly when rostered for duty.  If absent through sickness or injury, they should avoid activities likely to retard their return to duty.

Lawful orders -
6. The police service is a disciplined body.  Unless there is good and sufficient cause to do otherwise, officers must obey all lawful orders and abide by the provisions of legislation applicable to the police.  Officers should support their colleagues in the execution of their lawful duties, and oppose any improper behaviour, reporting it where appropriate.

Confidentiality
7. Information which comes into the possession of the police should be treated as confidential.  It should not be used for personal benefit and nor should it be divulged to other parties except in the proper course of police duty.  Similarly, officers should respect, as confidential, information about force policy and operations unless authorised to disclose it in the course of their duties.

Criminal offences
8. Officers must report any proceedings for a criminal offence taken against them.  Conviction of a criminal offence or the administration of a caution may of itself result in further action being taken.

Property
9. Officers must exercise reasonable care to prevent loss or damage to property (excluding their own personal property but including police property).

Sobriety
10. Whilst on duty officers must be sober.  Officers should not consume alcohol when on duty unless specifically authorised to do so or it becomes necessary for the proper discharge of police duty.

Appearance
11. Unless on duties which dictate otherwise, officers should always be well turned out, clean and tidy whilst on duty in uniform or in plain clothes.

18
General conduct
12. Whether on or off duty, police officers should not behave in a way which is likely to bring discredit upon the police service.

Notes
(a) The primary duties of those who hold the office of constable are the protection of life and property, the preservation of the Queen’s peace, and the prevention and detection of criminal offences.  To fulfil these duties they are granted extraordinary powers; the public and the police service therefore have the right to expect the highest standards of conduct from them.
 
(b) This Code sets out the principles which guide police officers’ conduct.  It does not seek to restrict officers’ discretion: rather it aims to define the parameters of conduct within which that discretion should be exercised.  However, it is important to note that any breach of the principles in this Code may result in action being taken by the organisation, which, in serious cases, could involve dismissal.
 
(c) Police behaviour, whether on or off duty, affects public confidence in the police service.  Any conduct which brings or is likely to bring discredit to the police service may be the subject of sanction.  Accordingly, any allegation of conduct which could, if proved, bring or be likely to bring discredit to the police service should be investigated in order to establish whether or not a breach of the Code has occurred and whether formal disciplinary action is appropriate.  No investigation is required where the conduct, if proved, would not bring or would not be likely to bring, discredit to the police service.

de facto

Defacto - illegal or illegitimate, without lawful title
     ===========================================

Original Article: The Free Dictionary "de facto" http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/de+facto
     ===========================================
[Latin, In fact.] In fact, in deed, actually.

This phrase is used to characterize an officer, a government, a past action, or a state of affairs that must be accepted for all practical purposes, but is "illegal" or "illegitimate".  Thus, an office, position, or status existing under a claim or color of right, such as a de facto corporation.  In this sense it is the contrary of de jure, which means rightful, legitimate, just, or constitutional.  Thus, an officer, king, or government de facto is one that is in actual possession of the office or supreme power, but by usurpation, or without lawful title; while an officer, king, or governor de jure is one who has just claim and rightful title to the office or power, but has never had plenary possession of it, or is not in actual possession.  A wife de facto is one whose marriage is Voidable by decree, as distinguished from a wife de jure, or lawful wife.  But the term is also frequently used independently of any distinction from de jure; thus a blockade de facto is a blockade that is actually maintained, as distinguished from a mere paper blockade.

A de facto corporation is one that has been given legal status despite the fact that it has not complied with all the statutory formalities required for corporate existence.  Only the state may challenge the validity of the existence of a de facto corporation.

De facto Segregation is the separation of members of different races by various social and economic factors, not by virtue of any government action or statute.

de facto adj. Latin for "in fact."  Often used in place of "actual" to show that the court will treat as a fact authority being exercised or an entity acting as if it had authority, even though the legal requirements have not been met.  (See: de facto corporation, de jure)

de facto adjective absolutely, actual, actually, as a matter of fact, authentic, bona fide, certain, demonstrable, existent, existing, existing in fact, factual, genuine, in existence, in fact, in point of fact, in reality, positively, real, substantive, tangible, true, truly, unquestionable, valid, veritable, well-founded, well-grounded, with validity 

Associated concepts: de facto administrator, de facto admissions, de facto apprenticeship, de facto appropriation, de facto authority, de facto board, de facto board of directors, de facto contract, de facto contract of sale, de facto corporation, de facto court, de facto director, de facto dissolution, de facto districts, de facto domicile, de facto government, de facto guardian, de facto judge, de facto officer, de facto trust, de facto trustee
      
See also: actual, bodily, material, physical

DE FACTO, i.e. in deed.  A term used to denote a thing actually done; a president of the United States de facto is one in the exercise of the executive power, and is distinguished from one, who being legally entitled to such power is ejected from it; the latter would be a president de jure.  An officer de facto is frequently considered as an officer de jure, and his official acts are of equal validity.  10 S. & R. 250; 4 Binn. R. 371; 11 S. & R. 411, 414; Coxe, 318; 9 Mass. 231; 10 Mass. 290; 15 Mass. 180; 5 Pick. 487.

A Law Dictionary, Adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United States.  By John Bouvier.   Published 1856.

A lie comes from a control, a truth come from being free

What is MONEY, and is it yours? There is no Real MONEY, its all promises to pay.  No its not yours, you are borrowing it.  £5, is a Promissory note, not money, £10 is a promissory note, not money, £20 is a Promissory Note, not money, so the question is, WHAT is money.  Its a promise to pay sometime in the future.

A fictional entity can create for itself, to use in the fictional world, but in the real world, money doesn't exist, until you create.  The real world, a man or a woman can use the fictional money, but why, when you own everything, without question.

Who has more right, more than yourself, to answer to yourself, you and your own corporation, MR or MISS PRESIDENT.  Its a commercial world, who has the the highest authority, than you.  NO ONE.  You are the Sons and Daughters of The Creator (GOD), any power in the artificial world, the real man or woman is the King and Queen, as well as the real world too, but are Sovereigns.  Value comes from believing in something, but if that something wasn't true, then does your belief become less valuable now.  If a criminal told you, that this is worth a lot, you would believe him or not, its your choice?, but if true people then told you that the criminal was wrong, then would you think, the criminal was right, or the real people were wrong?, you keep to believing the criminal, or the true people.

1 criminal-If a criminal tells you something, then would you believe them.

2 The true people-If true people tell you something, then you would believe them and know the truth.

  
But how would you be able to tell what a truth from a lie? a lie comes from a control, a truth come from being free.
 

Montagu Norman, former Governor of the Bank of England (1920 – 1944)

This quotation was reprinted in the Idaho Leader, USA, on 26th August 1924, and has been read into the Australian Federal Hansard twice: by John Evans MP, in 1926, and by MD Cowan MP, in the session of 1930-31.

     =================================

 “Capital must protect itself in every possible way, both by combination and legislation. Debts must be collected, mortgages foreclosed as rapidly as possible.

    “When, through process of law, the common people lose their homes, they will become more docile and more easily governed through the strong arm of the government applied by a central power of wealth under leading financiers.

    “These truths are well known among our principal men, who are now engaged in forming an imperialism to govern the world.  By dividing the voter through the political party system, we can get them to expend their energies in fighting for questions of no importance.

    “It is thus, by discrete action, we can secure for ourselves that which has been so well planned and so successfully accomplished.”

Montagu Norman, Governor of The Bank Of England, addressing the United States Bankers’ Association, NYC 1924

BANK OF ENGLAND ACT (1694)

                             BANK OF ENGLAND ACT 1694
                                   (5 & 6 Will. & Mar. c. 20)

An Act for granting to their Majesties several Rates and Duties upon Tunnage of Ships and Vessels, and upon Beer, Ale, and other Liquors, for securing certain Recompences and Advantages in the said Act mentioned, to such Persons as shall voluntarily advance the Sum of Fifteen hundred thousand Pounds towards carrying on the War against France.
 

Sections 1 to 15 and section 17 repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1867.  Sections 16 and 18 repealed by the
Statute Law Revision Act 1966.

19 Their Majesties may appoint Rules for transferring: and may make the Subscribers a corporation, subject to Redemption And … that it shall and may be lawful to and for their Majesties, by Letters Patents under the Great Seal of England, to limit, direct, and appoint how and in what Manner and Proportions and under what Rules and Directions, the said Sum of Twelve hundred thousand Pounds, Part of the said Sum of Fifteen hundred thousand Pounds, and the said yearly Sum of One hundred thousand Pounds, Part of the said yearly Sum of One hundred and forty thousand Pounds, and every, or any Part or Proportion thereof, may be assignable or transferable, assigned or transferred, to such Person or Persons only as shall freely and voluntarily accept of the same, and not otherwise; and to incorporate all and every such Subscribers and Contributors, their … Successors, or Assigns, to be one Body Corporate and Politick, by the name of The Governor and Company of the Bank of England, and by the same Name of The Governor and Company of the Bank of England to have perpetual Succession, and a Common Seal, and that they and their Successors, by the Name aforesaid, shall be able and capable in Law to have, purchase, receive, possess, enjoy, and retain to them and their Successors, Lands, Rents, Tenements and Hereditaments, of what Kind, Nature, or Quality soever; and also to sell, grant, demise, alien, or dispose of the same; and by the same Name to sue and implead, and be sued and impleaded, answer and be answered
in Courts of Record, or any other Place whatsover, and to do and execute all and singular other Matters and Things by the Name aforesaid, that to them shall or may appertain to do; subject nevertheless to the Proviso and Condition of Redemption herein after mentioned.   

First words omitted repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1888, and second words omitted repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948.

Section 20 repealed by the Bank of England Act 1708 and the Statute Law Revision Act 1867.  Section 21 repealed by the
Bank Act 1892.  Sections 22 to 24 repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1867 and section 25 repealed by the Bank of
England Act 1946.



26 Corporation not to trade – Punishment
And to the Intent that their Majesties Subjects may not be oppressed by the said Corporation, by their monopolizing or ingrossing any Sort of Goods, Wares, or Merchandizes, the said Corporation to be made and created by this Act shall not at any 

Time, during the Continuance thereof, deal or trade, or permit or suffer any Person or Persons whatsoever, either in Trust or for the Benefit of the same, to deal or trade with any of the Stock Moneys, or Effects of, or any Ways belonging to the said Corporation, in the buying or selling of any Goods, Wares, or Merchandizes whatsoever; and every Person or Persons who shall so deal or trade, or by whose Order or Directions such Dealings or Trading shall be made, prosecuted or managed, shall forfeit for every such Dealing or Trading, and every such Order and Directions, treble the Value of the Goods and Merchandize so traded for, to such Person or Persons who shall sue for the same by Action [in the High Court].


Section 26 amended by the Common Informers Act 1951 and words in square brackets substituted by the Supreme Court
of Judicature (Consolidation) Act 1925.


27 In what things they may nevertheless deal
Provided that nothing herein contained shall any Ways be construed to hinder the said Corporation from dealing in Bills of Exchange, or in buying or selling Bullion, Gold or Silver, or in selling any Goods, Wares or Merchandize whatsoever, which shall really and bona fide by left or deposited with the said Corporation for Money lent and advanced thereon, and which shall not be redeemed at the Time agreed on, or within Three Months after, or from selling such Goods as shall or may be the Produce of Lands purchased by the said Corporation.


Section 28 repealed by the Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1976. Sections 29 to 31 repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1948. Sections 32 and 34 repealed by the Bank Act 1892. Sections 33 and 35 to 48 repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1867.  The Act, as reproduced here, is taken from ‘Acts relating to the Bank’ Vol 1 published in 1694.

de jure v.s de facto and desuetude

Defacto - illegal or illegitimate, without lawful title
     =========================================== In a legal context, de jure is translated as "concerning law".   

A practice may exist de facto, where for example the people obey a contract as though there were a law enforcing it, yet there is no such law.  A process known as "desuetude" may allow de facto practices to replace obsolete de jure laws.  On the other hand, practices may exist de jure and not be obeyed or observed by the people.

In law, desuetude (from the Latin desuetudo, outdated, no longer custom) is a doctrine that causes statutes, similar legislation or legal principles to lapse and become unenforceable by a long habit of non-enforcement or lapse of time.  It is what happens to laws that are not repealed when they become obsolete.  It is the legal doctrine that long and continued non-use of a law renders it invalid, at least in the sense that courts will no longer tolerate punishing its transgressors.

The policy of inserting sunset clauses into a constitution or charter of rights (as in Canada since 1982) or into regulations and other delegated/subordinate legislation made under an Act (as in Australia since the early 1990s) can be regarded as a statutory codification of the  common{-}law doctrine.


British law 
The doctrine of desuetude is not favoured in the common{ }law tradition.  In 1818, the English court of King's Bench held in the case of Ashford v Thornton that trial by combat remained available at a defendant's option in a case where it was available under the common law.  The concept of desuetude has more currency in the civil law tradition, which is more regulated by legislative codes, and less bound by precedent.

The doctrine has been applied in regard to acts of the pre-1707 Scottish Parliament.  Hundreds of Acts dating back to the Middle Ages have also been amended or abolished in current and former British territories by numerous Statute Law Revision Acts from falling into desuetude.


United States law
Desuetude does not apply to violations of the United States Constitution.  In Walz v. Tax Commission of the City of New York, 397 U.S. 664, 678 (1970), the United States Supreme Court asserted that: "It is obviously correct that no one acquires a vested or protected right in violation of the Constitution by long use, even when that span of time covers our entire national existence and indeed predates it."

It may, however, have validity as a doctrine in defense of penal prosecution.  In 1825, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court declined to enforce the traditional punishment of ducking for women convicted as common scolds, stating that "total disuse of any civil institution for ages past, may afford just and rational objections against disrespected and superannuated ordinances." Wright v. Crane, 13 Serg. & Rawle 220, 228 (Pa. 1825).

The seminal modern case under U.S. state law is a West Virginia opinion regarding desuetude, Committee on Legal Ethics v. Printz, 187 W.Va. 182, 416 S.E.2d 720 (1992).  In that case, the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals held that penal statutes may become void under the doctrine of desuetude if:
 
The statute proscribes only acts that are malum prohibitum and not malum in se;
    
There has been open, notorious and pervasive violation of the statute for a long period; and
   
There has been a conspicuous policy of nonenforcement of the statute.

This holding was reaffirmed in 2003 in State ex rel. Canterbury v. Blake, 584 S.E.2d 512 (W. Va. 2003).

While it may not be a violation of due process to enforce a desuetudinal law, the fact that a law has long gone unenforced may present a bar to standing in a suit to prevent its future enforcement. 

In Poe v. Ullman, the Supreme Court refused to hear a challenge to Connecticut's ban on birth control, writing:
 
The undeviating policy of nullification by Connecticut of its anti-contraceptive laws throughout all the long years that they have been on the statute books bespeaks more than prosecutorial paralysis . . . . 'Deeply embedded traditional ways of carrying out state policy'—or not carrying it out—'are often tougher and truer law than the dead words of the written text.'

Shortly thereafter, Connecticut's birth control law was enforced, and struck down, in Griswold v. Connecticut.

ENGLAND - de jure-de facto

Defacto - illegal or illegitimate, without lawful title
=================================
ENGLAND - de-jure-de-facto

Old English - (de facto, until 1066)
Old Norse - (de facto, until 12th century)
Norman-French - (de jure, 1066 – 15th century)
Middle English - (de facto, 1066 – late 15th century)
English - (de facto, from 16th century)
Welsh - (de facto)
Cornish - (de facto)
     ==================================================================
Motto - Dieu et mon droit - (French)
"God and my right"
     ==================================================================
History    
 -      Unification--->>> 12 July 927
 -      Norman conquest--->>> 1066–1088
 -      Laws in Wales Acts--->>> 1535–1542
 -      Union of the Crowns--->>> 24 March 1603
 -      Glorious Revolution--->>> 11 December 1688
 -      Union with Scotland--->>> 1 May 1707
     ==========================================
Currency--->>> Pound sterling
     ==========================================
Today part of United Kingdom
( England and  Wales)
     ==================================================================
Religion--->>> Roman Catholic until 1533 and from 1553 to 1558; Anglican from 1533 to 1553 and from 1558 onwards.
     ==========================================
Government--->>> Absolute monarchy (before 1215)
Semi-constitutional monarchy (1215–1649, 1660–1689)
Constitutional monarchy (1689–1707)

Monarch
 -      927–939--->>> Æthelstan (first)
 -      1702–1707--->>> Anne (last)
     ===========================================
Legislature--->>> Parliament
 -      Upper house--->>> House of Lords
 -      Lower house--->>> House of Commons
    ===========================================
 The Kingdom of England in 1603.
     =========================================== 
The Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe.  At its height, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain (including both modern-day England and Wales) and several smaller outlying islands; what today comprises the legal jurisdiction of England and Wales. It had a land border with the Kingdom of Scotland to the north.  At the start of the period its capital and chief royal residence was Winchester, but Westminster and Gloucester were accorded almost equal status, with Westminster gradually gaining preference.

England as a state began on 12 July 927 after a gathering of kings from throughout Britain at Eamont Bridge, Cumbria, but broadly traces its origins to the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain and the Heptarchy of petty states that followed and ultimately united.  The Norman invasion of Wales from 1067–1283 (formalised with the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284) put Wales in England's control, and Wales came under English law with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542.  On 1 May 1707, England was united with Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707.  Though no longer a sovereign state, modern England continues as one of the countries of the United Kingdom.

The City of Westminster, near to London but not part of it, had become the de facto capital by the beginning of the 12th century.  It served as the capital of the Kingdom of England, then of the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801).  Subsequently, with the expansion of London, the capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is considered to be London. 

History 
The Kingdom of England has no specific founding date.  The Kingdom originated in the kingdoms of the ancestral English, the Anglo-Saxons, which were carved out of the former Roman province of Britannia.  The minor kingdoms in time coalesced into the seven famous kingdoms known as the Heptarchy: East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex and Wessex.  The Viking invasions shattered the pattern of the English kingdoms.  The English lands were finally unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Athelstan in AD 927.

The Anglo-Saxons knew themselves as the Angelcynn, Englisc or Engle.  These names were originally names of the Angles, but came to be used to refer to Saxons, Jutes and Frisii alike, at least in English.  They called their lands Engla land, meaing "Land of the Angles" (and when unified also Engla rice; "the Kingdom of the English").  In time the name Englaland became England.

During the Heptarchy, the most powerful King among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, a high king over the other kings.  The decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful.  It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in AD 825.  The Kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century.

In AD 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore.  It has been claimed that Egbert thereby became the first king to reign over a united England, however briefly.

In 886, King Alfred retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign.  The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that "all of the English people (all Angelcyn) not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred." Asser added that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more."  Alfred's "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan.  It is probably at this point that Alfred assumed the new royal style 'King of the Anglo-Saxons.'

During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders, but was definitively brought under English control by King Edred in AD 954, completing the unification of England.  At about this time, Lothian, the northern part of Northumbria, (Roman Bernicia), was ceded to the Kingdom of Scotland.

England has remained in political unity ever since.  During the reign of Ethelred II (who reigned 978–1016)—known to posterity as Ethelred the Unready—a new wave of Danish invasions was orchestrated by Sweyn I of Denmark, culminating after a quarter of a century of warfare in the Danish conquest of England in AD 1013.  But Sweyn died on 2 February 1014 and Ethelred was restored to the throne.  In 1015, Sweyn's son King Canute launched a new invasion.  The ensuing war ended with an agreement in 1016 between Canute and Ethelred's successor, Edmund Ironside, to divide England between them, but Edmund's death on 30 November of that year left England united under Danish rule.  This continued for 26 years until the death of Harthacanute in June 1042.  He was the son of Canute and Emma of Normandy (the widow of Ethelred the Unready), and had no heirs of his own; he was succeeded by his half-brother, Ethelred's son, Edward the Confessor.  The Kingdom of England was once again independent.



Norman conquest 
The peace lasted only until the death of the childless Edward in January 1066.  King Edward's brother-in-law was crowned King Harold; but Edward's cousin William the Bastard, later William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, immediately claimed the throne for himself.  William launched an invasion of England and landed in Sussex on 28 September 1066.  Harold and his army were in York following their victory against the Norwegians at the Battle of Stamford Bridge (25 September 1066) when the news reached him. 

He decided to set out without delay and confront the Norman army in Sussex so marched southwards at once, despite the army not being properly rested following the battle with the Norwegians.

The armies of Harold and William faced each other at the Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066), in which the English army, or Fyrd, was defeated, King Harold and his two brothers were slain, and William emerged as victor.  William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition.  He was not, however, planning to absorb the Kingdom into the Duchy of Normandy.  As a mere Duke, William owed allegiance to Philip I of France, whereas in the independent Kingdom of England he could rule without interference.  He was crowned King of England on 25 December 1066.  The sealing of the Magna Carta in 1215 put England on course to become a constitutional monarchy.

In 1092, King William II, son of William the Conqueror, led an invasion of Strathclyde, a Celtic kingdom in what is now southwest Scotland and Cumbria.  In doing so, he annexed what is now the county of Cumbria to England; this was the last major expansion by England into what is now considered a part of England.  Later, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 annexed Wales to England.

In 1124, Henry I ceded what is now southeast Scotland (called Lothian) to the Kingdom of Scotland, in return for the King of Scotland's loyalty.  This area of land had been English since its foundation in 927 AD, and before that had been a part of the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria.  Lothian contained what later became the Scottish capital, Edinburgh.  This arrangement was later finalised in 1237 by the Treaty of York.

The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy remained in personal union until 1204.  King John, a fourth-generation descendant of William, lost the continental possessions of the Duchy to Philip II of France during that year.  A few remnants of Normandy, including the Channel Islands, remained in the possession of King John, together with most of the Duchy of Aquitaine.
 
Norman conquest of Wales 
Up to the time of the Norman conquest of Anglo-Saxon England, Wales had remained for the most part independent of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, although some Welsh kings did sometimes acknowledge the Bretwalda.

However, soon after the Norman conquest of England, some of the Norman lords began to attack Wales. They conquered parts of it, which they ruled, acknowledging the overlordship of the Norman kings of England, but with considerable local independence.  Over many years these "Marcher Lords" conquered more and more of Wales, against considerable resistance led by various Welsh princes, who also often acknowledged the overlordship of the Norman kings of England.

King John's grandson Edward I of England defeated Llywelyn the Last, and so effectively conquered Wales, in 1282.  {He created} the title Prince of Wales for his eldest son Edward II in 1301. 

Edward's conquest was brutal and the subsequent repression considerable, as the magnificent Welsh castles such as Conwy, Harlech and Caernarfon attest; but this event re-united under a single ruler the lands of Roman Britain for the first time since the establishment of the kingdom of the Jutes in Kent in the 5th century AD, some 700 years before.

Accordingly, this was a highly significant moment in the history of medieval England, as it re-established links with the pre-Saxon past. 

These links were exploited for political purposes to unite the peoples of the kingdom, including the Anglo-Normans, by popularising Welsh legends.

The Welsh language—derived from the British language, with significant Latin influences—continued to be spoken by the majority of the population of Wales for at least another 500 years, and is still today a majority language in parts of the country.
 

Loss of the Angevin Empire and the Wars of the Roses 
Edward III of England, son of Edward II, was the first English king to have a claim to the throne of France.  Edward III pursued this claim, which resulted in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453).  The war pitted five Kings of England of the House of Plantagenet against five Kings of France of the Capetian House of Valois. 

Though the English had numerous celebrated victories, they were unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the French. 

England was defeated, retaining only a single town in France, Calais.  Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the Battle of Agincourt.

During the Hundred Years War an English identity began to develop in place of the previous division between the Norman Lords and their Anglo-Saxon subjects, in consequence of sustained hostility to the increasingly nationalist French, whose kings and other leaders (notably the charismatic Joan of Arc) used a developing sense of French identity to help draw people to their cause.  The Anglo-Normans became separate from their cousins, who held lands mainly in France, who mocked the former for their archaic and bastardised spoken French.  English also became the language of the law courts during this period.

The Kingdom had little time to recover before entering the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487), a series of civil wars over possession of the throne between the House of Lancaster (whose heraldic symbol was the red rose) and the House of York (whose symbol was the white rose), each led by different branches of the descendants of Edward III.  The end of these wars found the throne held by the descendant of an initially illegitimate member of the House of Lancaster, married to the eldest daughter of the House of York: Henry VII of England and his Queen consort, Elizabeth of York. 

They were the founders of the Tudor dynasty, which ruled the Kingdom from 1485 to 1603.
 

Tudors and Stuarts 
Wales had retained a separate legal and administrative system, which had been established by Edward I in the late 13th century. 

Under the Tudor monarchy, which was of Welsh origin, Henry VIII of England—a son of Henry VII—replaced the laws of Wales with those of England (under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542). 

Wales now ceased to be a personal fiefdom divided between the Prince of Wales and Earl of March, and was instead annexed to the Kingdom of England, and henceforth was represented in the Parliament of England.

During the 1530s, Henry VIII overthrew the power of the Roman Catholic Church within the kingdom, replacing the Pope as head of the English church, and seizing the church's lands, thereby beginning the creation of a new Protestant religion. This had the effect of aligning England with Scotland, which also gradually adopted a Protestant religion, whereas the most important continental powers, France and Spain, remained Roman Catholic.
In 1541, during Henry VIII's reign, the Parliament of Ireland proclaimed him King of Ireland, thereby bringing the Kingdom of Ireland into personal union with the Kingdom of England.
 
Portrait of Elizabeth made to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), depicted in the background. Elizabeth's international power is symbolised by the hand resting on the globe.

During the reign of Mary I of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII, Calais—the last remaining continental possession of the kingdom—was lost: captured by the French, under Francis, Duke of Guise, on 7 January 1558.

Henry VIII's younger daughter, Elizabeth I of England, consolidated the new Protestant Church of England.  She also began to build up the kingdom's naval strength, on the foundations her father had laid down.  In 1588 her new navy was strong enough to defeat the Spanish Armada, which had sought to invade England in order to put a Catholic monarch on the throne in her place.

The House of Tudor ended with the death of Elizabeth I on 24 March 1603.  James VI, King of Scots (a descendant of Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII's sister), from Scotland's House of Stuart, ascended the throne of England, becoming King James I of England.  He was a Protestant.  Despite the Union of the Crowns, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland remained separate and independent states under this personal union: a state of affairs which lasted for more than a century.

The Stuart kings, however, overestimated the power of the English monarchy, and were cast down by Parliament in 1645 and 1688.  In the first instance, Charles I's introduction of new forms of taxation, in defiance of Parliament, led to the English Civil War (1641–45), in which the king was defeated, and to the consequent abolition of the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell, during the interregnum of 1649–1660.  Henceforth, the monarch could reign only at the will of Parliament.

Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, an attempt by James II (a son of Charles I) to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression by the Tudors—led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, in which he was deposed by Parliament.  The Crown was then offered by Parliament to James II's daughter and son-in-law/nephew, Protestant princes of Orange, William III and Mary II.

In 1707, Acts of Union were passed by both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England, to ratify the 1706 Treaty of Union, and bring into being {the new Kingdom of Great Britain}.  Queen Anne, the last monarch of the House of Stuart, became the first monarch of the new kingdom.  The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain, located in Westminster, London.  {At this point England ceased to exist} as a separate political entity, and since then has had no national government. {The laws of England were unaffected, with the legal jurisdiction continuing to be that of England and Wales,} while Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts.  This continued after the Act of Union of 1800 between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland, which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (which would later become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland).


Commonwealth and Protectorate
Cromwell at Dunbar.  Oliver Cromwell united the whole of the British Isles by force and created the Commonwealth of England.

England was a monarchy for the entirety of its political existence, from its creation around 927 AD up until the 1707 Acts of Union, except for the eleven years of the English Interregnum (1649 to 1660) which followed the English Civil War.

The rule of the executed King Charles I was replaced by that of a republic known as the Commonwealth of England (1649–1653). 

The most prominent General of the republic's New Model Army, Oliver Cromwell, managed to extend its rule to Ireland and Scotland.

The victorious Cromwell eventually turned against the republic, and established a new form of government known as The Protectorate, with himself as Lord Protector until his death on 3 September 1658. 

He was succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell. However, anarchy eventually developed, as Richard proved unable to maintain his rule.  He resigned his title and retired into obscurity.

The Commonwealth was then re-established, but proved to be unstable, so the exiled claimant, Charles II, was recalled to the throne by Parliament in 1660 in the English Restoration.
Union with Scotland

In the Scottish case, the attractions were partly financial and partly to do with removing English trade sanctions put in place through the Alien Act 1705.  The English were more anxious about the Royal succession.  The death of King William III in 1702 had led to the succession of Queen Anne to the crowns of England and Scotland, but her only surviving child had died in 1700, and the English Act of Settlement 1701 had given the Succession to the English crown to the Protestant House of Hanover.  Securing the same succession in Scotland became the primary object of English strategic thinking towards Scotland.  By 1704, the Union of the Crowns was in crisis, with the Scottish Act of Security allowing for the Scottish Parliament to choose a different monarch, which could in turn lead to an independent foreign policy during a major European war.  The English establishment did not wish to risk a Stuart on the Scottish throne, nor the possibility of a Scottish military alliance with another power.

A Treaty of Union was agreed on 22 July 1706, and following the Acts of Union of 1707, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain, the independence of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland came to an end on 1 May 1707.  The Acts of Union also created a customs union and monetary union and provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Acts would "cease and become void."

Anne was succeeded by her second cousin George I of the House of Hanover, who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth, daughter of James I and VI.