Original Article: "Hebrew calendar" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar
Hebrew calendar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Hebrew or Jewish calendar (הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי, ha'luach ha'ivri) is a lunisolar calendar used today predominantly for Jewish religious observances. It determines the dates for Jewish holidays and the appropriate public reading of Torah portions, yahrzeits (dates to commemorate the death of a relative), and daily Psalm readings, among many ceremonial uses. In Israel, it is used for religious purposes, provides a time frame for agriculture and is an official calendar for civil purposes, although the latter usage has been steadily declining in favor of the Gregorian calendar.
The calendar used by Jews has evolved over time. The basic structural features of the early calendar are thought to have been influenced by the Babylonian calendar, including the seven-day week, the lunisolar intercalary adjustment and the names of the months. Until the Tannaitic period (approximately 10–220 CE) the calendar employed a new crescent moon, with an additional month normally added every two or three years to correct for the difference between twelve lunar months and the solar year. When to add it was based on observation of natural agriculture-related events.
Through the Amoraic period (200–500 CE) and into the Geonic period, this system was gradually displaced by the mathematical rules used today. The principles and rules were fully codified by Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah in the 12th century.
Maimonides' work also replaced counting "years since the destruction of the Temple" with the modern creation-era Anno Mundi.
The Hebrew calendar year is longer by about 6 minutes and 25+25/57 seconds than the current mean solar year, so that every 224 years, the Hebrew calendar will fall a day behind the current mean solar year; and about every 231 years it will fall a day behind the Gregorian calendar year. Because of the roughly eleven-day difference between twelve lunar months and one solar year, the length of the Hebrew calendar year varies in the repeating 19-year Metonic cycle of 235 lunar months, with the intercalary month added according to defined rules every two or three years, for a total of seven times per 19 years.
The era used since the middle ages is the Anno Mundi epoch (Latin for "in the year of the world"; Hebrew: לבריאת העולם, "from the creation of the world"). As with Anno Domini, the words or abbreviation (A.M. or AM) for the era should properly precede the date rather than follow it, although this is no longer always followed. AM 5773 began at sunset on 16 September 2012 and ended on 4 September 2013. AM 5774 began at sunset on 4 September 2013 and will end on 24 September 2014. AM 5775 will begin at sunset on 24 September 2014 and end on 13 September 2015.
Thursday, 7 November 2013
Wednesday, 6 November 2013
40th century BC - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "40th century BC" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40th_century_BC
40th century BC
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
During the 40th century BC, the Near East and southeastern Europe were in the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age), transitional between the Stone and the Bronze Ages. Northwestern Europe was in the Neolithic. China was dominated by the Neolithic Yangshao culture. The Americas were in a phase of transition between the Paleo-Indian (Lithic) to the Meso-Indian (Archaic) stage.
40th century BC
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
During the 40th century BC, the Near East and southeastern Europe were in the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age), transitional between the Stone and the Bronze Ages. Northwestern Europe was in the Neolithic. China was dominated by the Neolithic Yangshao culture. The Americas were in a phase of transition between the Paleo-Indian (Lithic) to the Meso-Indian (Archaic) stage.
Anno Lucis - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "Anno Lucis"
Anno Lucis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Anno Lucis is a dating system used in Freemasonry that is similar to, but different from Anno Mundi.
Description
In their ceremonial or commemorative proceedings, Freemasons add 4,000 years to the current Anno Domini calendar year and append Anno Lucis (“Year of Light”) to the Gregorian calendar year (for example, 2013 AD is 6013 AL). This calendar era, which would designate 4,001 BC as ‘year zero’, was adopted in the 18th century (58th century AL) as a simplification of the Anno Mundi era dating system used in the Hebrew calendar, and borrowing from other ideas of that time regarding the year of creation. See also 40th century BC
Anno Lucis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Anno Lucis is a dating system used in Freemasonry that is similar to, but different from Anno Mundi.
Description
In their ceremonial or commemorative proceedings, Freemasons add 4,000 years to the current Anno Domini calendar year and append Anno Lucis (“Year of Light”) to the Gregorian calendar year (for example, 2013 AD is 6013 AL). This calendar era, which would designate 4,001 BC as ‘year zero’, was adopted in the 18th century (58th century AL) as a simplification of the Anno Mundi era dating system used in the Hebrew calendar, and borrowing from other ideas of that time regarding the year of creation. See also 40th century BC
Anno Domini - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "Anno Domini" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini
Anno Domini
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Anno Domini (AD or A.D.) and Before Christ (BC or B.C.) are designations used to label or number years used with the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term Anno Domini is Medieval Latin, translated as In the year of the Lord, and as in the year of Our Lord. :782 It is sometimes specified more fully as Anno Domini Nostri Iesu (Jesu) Christi ("In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ"). This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525, but was not widely used until after 800.
The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adopted for pragmatic interests of international communication, transportation and commercial integration and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union. Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the abbreviation before the year number for AD. Since BC is not derived from Latin it is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2013, but 68 BC). However, placing the AD after the year number (as in "2013 AD") is also becoming common usage. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus. However this would mean that the ~33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be present in either BC or AD time scales.
Anno Domini
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Anno Domini (AD or A.D.) and Before Christ (BC or B.C.) are designations used to label or number years used with the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term Anno Domini is Medieval Latin, translated as In the year of the Lord, and as in the year of Our Lord. :782 It is sometimes specified more fully as Anno Domini Nostri Iesu (Jesu) Christi ("In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ"). This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525, but was not widely used until after 800.
The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adopted for pragmatic interests of international communication, transportation and commercial integration and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union. Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the abbreviation before the year number for AD. Since BC is not derived from Latin it is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2013, but 68 BC). However, placing the AD after the year number (as in "2013 AD") is also becoming common usage. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus. However this would mean that the ~33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be present in either BC or AD time scales.
Anno Mundi - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "Anno Mundi" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi
Anno Mundi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Anno Mundi (Latin: "in the year of the world"), abbreviated as AM or A.M., or Year After Creation, refers to a Calendar era based on the biblical creation of the world. Numerous efforts have been made to determine the biblical date of Creation, yielding varying results. Besides differences in interpretation, which version of the Bible is being referenced also impacts on the result. Two dominant dates for creation using such models exist. These were calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of the Book of Genesis. Patriarchs from Adam to Terah, the father of Abraham, are said to be older by as much as 100 years or more when they begat their named son in the Greek Christian Septuagint than they were in the Latin Christian Vulgate (Genesis 5; Genesis 11) or the Hebrew Jewish Tanakh (Gen 5; Gen 11). The net difference between the two major genealogies of Genesis was 1466 years (ignoring the "second year after the flood" ambiguity), which is virtually all of the 1500-year difference between 5500 BC and 4000 BC. (See Dating creation.) The older dates about 5500 BC are based on the Greek (Christian) Septuagint. The Byzantine calendar has been in general use at one time in the Christian Orthodox Churches and several Eastern European countries. The younger dates about 4000 BC are based on the Hebrew Jewish Masoretic text. The Hebrew calendar era is used within the Jewish communities
Anno Mundi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Anno Mundi (Latin: "in the year of the world"), abbreviated as AM or A.M., or Year After Creation, refers to a Calendar era based on the biblical creation of the world. Numerous efforts have been made to determine the biblical date of Creation, yielding varying results. Besides differences in interpretation, which version of the Bible is being referenced also impacts on the result. Two dominant dates for creation using such models exist. These were calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of the Book of Genesis. Patriarchs from Adam to Terah, the father of Abraham, are said to be older by as much as 100 years or more when they begat their named son in the Greek Christian Septuagint than they were in the Latin Christian Vulgate (Genesis 5; Genesis 11) or the Hebrew Jewish Tanakh (Gen 5; Gen 11). The net difference between the two major genealogies of Genesis was 1466 years (ignoring the "second year after the flood" ambiguity), which is virtually all of the 1500-year difference between 5500 BC and 4000 BC. (See Dating creation.) The older dates about 5500 BC are based on the Greek (Christian) Septuagint. The Byzantine calendar has been in general use at one time in the Christian Orthodox Churches and several Eastern European countries. The younger dates about 4000 BC are based on the Hebrew Jewish Masoretic text. The Hebrew calendar era is used within the Jewish communities
Shanghaiing - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "Shanghaiing" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghaiing
Shanghaiing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shanghaiing refers to the practice of kidnapping men to serve as sailors by coercive techniques such as trickery, intimidation, or violence. Those engaged in this form of kidnapping were known as crimps. Until 1915, unfree labor was widely used aboard American merchant ships. The related term press gang refers specifically to impressment practices in Great Britain's Royal Navy.
Shanghaiing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shanghaiing refers to the practice of kidnapping men to serve as sailors by coercive techniques such as trickery, intimidation, or violence. Those engaged in this form of kidnapping were known as crimps. Until 1915, unfree labor was widely used aboard American merchant ships. The related term press gang refers specifically to impressment practices in Great Britain's Royal Navy.
Monday, 4 November 2013
Misprision of Treason - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Fiction=green
Dead in Law - dead (Fiction) to -->> dead (Fiction)
=========================================== Original Article: "Misprision of treason" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misprision_of_treason
Misprision of treason is an offence found in many common law jurisdictions around the world, having been inherited from English law. It is committed by someone who knows a treason is being or is about to be committed but does not report it to a proper authority.
Australia
Under Australian law a person is guilty of misprision of treason if he: "(a) receives or assists another person who, to his or her knowledge, has committed treason with the intention of allowing him or her to escape punishment or apprehension; or (b) knowing that another person intends to commit treason, does not inform a constable of it within a reasonable time or use other reasonable endeavours to prevent the commission of the offence." The penalty is life imprisonment.
Canada
Under section 50(1)(b) of the Canadian Criminal Code, a person is guilty of an offence (although it is not described as misprision) if: "knowing that a person is about to commit high treason or treason [he] does not, with all reasonable dispatch, inform a justice of the peace or other peace officer thereof or make other reasonable efforts to prevent that person from committing high treason or treason." The maximum penalty is 14 years.
Republic of Ireland
Under section 3 of the Treason Act 1939 a person is guilty of misprision of treason if "knowing that any act the commission of which would be treason is intended or proposed to be, or is being, or has been committed, [he] does not forthwith disclose the same, together with all particulars thereof known to him, to a Justice of the District Court, or an officer of the Gárda Síochána, or some other person lawfully engaged on duties relating to the preservation of peace and order."
New Zealand
Section 76(b) of the Crimes Act 1961 provides that any person who "knowing that a person is about to commit treason, fails without reasonable excuse to inform a constable as soon as possible or to use other reasonable efforts to prevent its commission" is guilty of an offence. A person guilty of this offence is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years.
Russia
Russia has no specific offence of misprision. However Article 275 of the Criminal Code of Russia encourages people to come forward with information by providing them with a statutory defence to treason and other offences: "A person who has committed crimes stipulated in this Article, or by Articles 276 and 278 of this Code, shall be relieved from criminal responsibility if he has facilitated the prevention of further damage to the interests of the Russian Federation by informing the governmental authorities of his own free will and in due time, or in any other way, if his actions contain no other corpus delicti."
United Kingdom
Misprision of treason is an offence under the common law of England and Wales and the common law of Northern Ireland. By statute, the offence of misprision of treason under the common law of England has been made an offence which is cognisable under the law of Scotland. This offence was formerly known as misprision of high treason in order to distinguish it from misprision of petty treason. The crime is committed where a person knows that treason is being planned or committed and does not report it as soon as he can to a justice of the peace or other authority. The offender does not need to consent to the treason; mere knowledge is enough. Failure to report treason used to itself be treason at common law, but a statute passed by the parliament of 1554-1555 created a new offence of misprision of treason, which was a non-capital felony.
Difference between treason and misprision of treason
In R v. Tonge (1662) 6 State Tr 225, it was said that:
“ Where a person knowing of the design meets with the others and hears them discourse of their traitorous designs and says or acts nothing; this is high treason in that party, for it is more than a bare concealment, which is misprision. But if a person not knowing of their design before, come into their company and hear their discourses, and say nothing, and never meet with them again at their consultations, that conduct is only misprision of high treason. ”
(For more information about the "Tonge Plot", click here.) Similarly, in R v. Walcott (1683) 9 State Tr 519 at 553, Pemberton, LCJ. said:
“ For a man to hear of treason accidentally or occasionally and conceal it is but misprision, but if a man will be at consult where treason is hatched and will then conceal it he is guilty of treason therein. ”
Penalty
It is punishable by imprisonment for life. It used also to be punished by forfeiture but that is probably no longer the case in England and Wales.
Procedure
The procedure on trials for misprision of treason is the same as that on trials for murder. It is classified as an indictable-only offence.
Limitation
A person may not be indicted for misprision of treason committed within the United Kingdom unless the indictment is signed within three years of the commission of that offence.
Scottish Parliament
Misprision of treason is a reserved matter on which the Scottish Parliament cannot legislate.
Misprision of petty treason
Misprision of petty treason was an offence under the common law of England and Wales, and under the common law of Ireland and was classified as a misdemeanour. It was never an offence in Scotland. It ceased to be an offence in England and Wales when petty treason was abolished by the Offences against the Person Act 1828.
United States
In the United States, misprision of treason is a federal offense, committed where someone who has knowledge of the commission of any treason against the United States, conceals such knowledge and does not inform the President, a federal judge or State Governor or State judge (18 U.S.C. § 2382). It is punishable by a fine and up to seven years in federal prison. It is also a crime punishable under the criminal laws of many states.
Misprision of felony - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Dead in Law - dead (Fiction) to -->> dead (Fiction)
===========================================
Original Article: "Misprision of felony" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misprision_of_felony
Misprision of felony
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Misprision of felony was an offence under the common law of England and was classified as a misdemeanour. It consisted of failing to report knowledge of a felony to the appropriate authorities. Exceptions were made for close family members of the felon. A person was not obliged to disclose his knowledge of a felony where the disclosure would tend to incriminate him of that offence or another. With the development of the modern law, this crime has been discarded in many jurisdictions, and is generally only applied against persons placed in a special position of authority or responsibility. In this case, the offence of misfeasance in public office or malfeasance in public office may be considered instead. For example, corrections officers who stand idly by while drug trafficking occurs within the prison may be prosecuted for this crime. It has been abolished in England and Wales, in Northern Ireland, in the Republic of Ireland, and in New South Wales.
Ultra vires - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "ultra vires" http://www.thefreedictionary.com/intra+vires
ultra vires - beyond the legal power or authority of a person or official or body etc; "an ultra vires contract"
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Original Article: "Ultra vires" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_vires
Ultra vires
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ultra vires is a Latin phrase meaning literally "beyond powers", and slightly less literally (from interpolating the definite article "the", not found in Latin) "beyond [the] powers", although its standard legal translation and substitute is "beyond power". If an act requires legal authority and it is done with such authority, it is characterised in law as intra vires (nearly literally "within [the] powers", after interpolating "the"; standard legal translation and substitute, "within power"). If it is done without such authority, it is ultra vires. Acts that are intra vires may equivalently be termed "valid" and those that are ultra vires "invalid".
ultra vires - beyond the legal power or authority of a person or official or body etc; "an ultra vires contract"
===========================================
Original Article: "Ultra vires" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_vires
Ultra vires
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ultra vires is a Latin phrase meaning literally "beyond powers", and slightly less literally (from interpolating the definite article "the", not found in Latin) "beyond [the] powers", although its standard legal translation and substitute is "beyond power". If an act requires legal authority and it is done with such authority, it is characterised in law as intra vires (nearly literally "within [the] powers", after interpolating "the"; standard legal translation and substitute, "within power"). If it is done without such authority, it is ultra vires. Acts that are intra vires may equivalently be termed "valid" and those that are ultra vires "invalid".
Sunday, 3 November 2013
Leon Trotsky - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "Leon Trotsky" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky
Leon Trotsky
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Leon Trotsky[a] (Russian: Лев Дави́дович Тро́цкий; pronounced born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein; 7 November [O.S. 26 October] 1879 – 21 August 1940) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army. Trotsky was initially a supporter of the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He joined the Bolsheviks immediately prior to the 1917 October Revolution, and eventually became a leader within the Party. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army as People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. He was a major figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War (1918–20). He was also among the first members of the Politburo. After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was successively removed from power in 1927, expelled from the Communist Party, and finally deported from the Soviet Union in 1929. As the head of the Fourth International, Trotsky continued in exile in Mexico to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, in the late 1930s, Trotsky opposed Stalin's non-aggression pact with Adolf Hitler. He was assassinated on Stalin's orders in Mexico, by Ramón Mercader, a Spanish-born Soviet agent in August 1940. (Most of his family members were also killed in separate attacks.) Trotsky's ideas were the basis of Trotskyism, a major school of Marxist thought that is opposed to the theories of Stalinism. He was one of the few Soviet political figures who were not rehabilitated by the government under Nikita Khrushchev in the 1950s. In the late 1980s, his books were released for publication in the Soviet Union.
Leon Trotsky
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Leon Trotsky[a] (Russian: Лев Дави́дович Тро́цкий; pronounced born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein; 7 November [O.S. 26 October] 1879 – 21 August 1940) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army. Trotsky was initially a supporter of the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He joined the Bolsheviks immediately prior to the 1917 October Revolution, and eventually became a leader within the Party. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army as People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. He was a major figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War (1918–20). He was also among the first members of the Politburo. After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was successively removed from power in 1927, expelled from the Communist Party, and finally deported from the Soviet Union in 1929. As the head of the Fourth International, Trotsky continued in exile in Mexico to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, in the late 1930s, Trotsky opposed Stalin's non-aggression pact with Adolf Hitler. He was assassinated on Stalin's orders in Mexico, by Ramón Mercader, a Spanish-born Soviet agent in August 1940. (Most of his family members were also killed in separate attacks.) Trotsky's ideas were the basis of Trotskyism, a major school of Marxist thought that is opposed to the theories of Stalinism. He was one of the few Soviet political figures who were not rehabilitated by the government under Nikita Khrushchev in the 1950s. In the late 1980s, his books were released for publication in the Soviet Union.
George Bernard Shaw - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "George Bernard Shaw" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw
George Bernard Shaw
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950) was an Irish playwright and a co-founder of the London School of Economics. Although his first profitable writing was music and literary criticism, in which capacity he wrote many highly articulate pieces of journalism, his main talent was for drama, and he wrote more than 60 plays. He was also an essayist, novelist and short story writer. Nearly all his writings address prevailing social problems, but have a vein of comedy which makes their stark themes more palatable. Issues which engaged Shaw's attention included education, marriage, religion, government, health care, and class privilege. He was most angered by what he perceived as the exploitation of the working class. An ardent socialist, Shaw wrote many brochures and speeches for the Fabian Society. He became an accomplished orator in the furtherance of its causes, which included gaining equal rights for men and women, alleviating abuses of the working class, rescinding private ownership of productive land, and promoting healthy lifestyles.
For a short time he was active in local politics, serving on the London County Council. In 1898, Shaw married Charlotte Payne-Townshend, a fellow Fabian, whom he survived. They settled in Ayot St Lawrence in a house now called Shaw's Corner. Shaw died there, aged 94, from chronic problems exacerbated by injuries he incurred by falling from a ladder. He is the only person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize in Literature (1925) and an Oscar (1938), for his contributions to literature and for his work on the film Pygmalion (adaptation of his play of the same name), respectively. Shaw wanted to refuse his Nobel Prize outright because he had no desire for public honours, but accepted it at his wife's behest: she considered it a tribute to Ireland. He did reject the monetary award, requesting it be used to finance translation of fellow playwright August Strindberg's works from Swedish to English.
George Bernard Shaw
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950) was an Irish playwright and a co-founder of the London School of Economics. Although his first profitable writing was music and literary criticism, in which capacity he wrote many highly articulate pieces of journalism, his main talent was for drama, and he wrote more than 60 plays. He was also an essayist, novelist and short story writer. Nearly all his writings address prevailing social problems, but have a vein of comedy which makes their stark themes more palatable. Issues which engaged Shaw's attention included education, marriage, religion, government, health care, and class privilege. He was most angered by what he perceived as the exploitation of the working class. An ardent socialist, Shaw wrote many brochures and speeches for the Fabian Society. He became an accomplished orator in the furtherance of its causes, which included gaining equal rights for men and women, alleviating abuses of the working class, rescinding private ownership of productive land, and promoting healthy lifestyles.
For a short time he was active in local politics, serving on the London County Council. In 1898, Shaw married Charlotte Payne-Townshend, a fellow Fabian, whom he survived. They settled in Ayot St Lawrence in a house now called Shaw's Corner. Shaw died there, aged 94, from chronic problems exacerbated by injuries he incurred by falling from a ladder. He is the only person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize in Literature (1925) and an Oscar (1938), for his contributions to literature and for his work on the film Pygmalion (adaptation of his play of the same name), respectively. Shaw wanted to refuse his Nobel Prize outright because he had no desire for public honours, but accepted it at his wife's behest: she considered it a tribute to Ireland. He did reject the monetary award, requesting it be used to finance translation of fellow playwright August Strindberg's works from Swedish to English.
impersonation, false impersonation (1878). Police Officers with 2 identity's
Blacks Law, 9th Edition
impersonation
The act of impersonating someone - Also termed personation
false impersonation (1878)
The crime of falsely representing oneself as another person, usually, a law-enforcement officer, for the purpose of deceiving someone
2 faces, at the same time. Multiple identity's.
Ever heard someone say "don't impersonate a police officer", well they are doing it, just that. The Police Officer has 2 identity's at the same time, {government ID} as well as being the {police officer}, so what are they?, one or the other, do they really know who they are.
Schizophrenia, multiple personalities, a person's brain can create several personalities or other people that present themselves,
impersonation
The act of impersonating someone - Also termed personation
false impersonation (1878)
The crime of falsely representing oneself as another person, usually, a law-enforcement officer, for the purpose of deceiving someone
| BAR members |
Non-BAR-members UNCLEAN HANDS incriminating evidence False impersonation || identity, 1 -- identity, 2 2 - identity's - Police Officer - GOV ID Aiding and Abetting - legal crime - deceiving |
2 faces, at the same time. Multiple identity's.
Ever heard someone say "don't impersonate a police officer", well they are doing it, just that. The Police Officer has 2 identity's at the same time, {government ID} as well as being the {police officer}, so what are they?, one or the other, do they really know who they are.
Schizophrenia, multiple personalities, a person's brain can create several personalities or other people that present themselves,
Dissociative identity disorder (DID), also known as multiple personality disorder (MPD), is a mental disorder characterized by at least two distinct and relatively enduring identities or dissociated personality states that alternately control a person's behavior, and is accompanied by memory impairment for important information not explained by ordinary forgetfulness.
Saturday, 2 November 2013
1-Christian 2-Science - is an Oxymoron
Original Article: "Christian Science" http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Christian_Science
Christian Science
1-Christian 2-Science is a pseudoscientific and overtly religious belief system founded by Mary Baker Eddy in 1866, based on the idea that Christianity is a verifiable set of beliefs. The central texts of 1-Christian 2-Science are the Bible and the 1-Christian 2-Science textbook, Science & Health With Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy.
Oxymoronic connotations
"1-Christian 2-Science" is an oxymoron in the sense that "1-Christian" implies some form of dogma and set of beliefs to be adhered to, while "2-science" is a method that does not and cannot have a strict dogma. Unfortunately, it's an oxymoron that has attracted a sizable following (which isn't entirely surprising, since the "2-Science" part of the name was tacked on to gain credibility). Contrary to the name, followers of "1-Christian 2-Science" do not actually believe in science—or even, it would seem, their own senses, since they specifically deny any evidence which contradicts their interpretation of the Bible. There are also some who would doubt their religion is particularly Christian, but that is beyond our scope.
Medicine and health
1-Christian 2-Scientists deny the reality of the physical world.
They instead believe that the only reality is purely spiritual and that there is only one substance of which we are all composed (God).
As a consequence, 1-Christian 2-Scientists deny the reality of pain and disease, believing them to be deceptive misperceptions of the pure spiritual nature of man and God. They contend any such misperception may be remedied through prayer and reflection on God's perfection and goodness. The official party line is that 1-Christian 2-Science does not try to convince people not to get medical attention, but does discourage mixing of 1-Christian 2-Science and reality-based treatments. The primary book for 1-Christian 2-Scientists is Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures, first published in 1875 by Mary Baker Eddy. It is no small irony that Eddy's history of hearing voices as a child suggests she may have been schizophrenic, a diagnosis medical science was not yet capable of making in the 19th century and which 1-Christian 2-Science would have in any event rejected.
Nancy Brewster
Nancy Brewster was a seven-year-old girl who died as a direct result of neglectful "treatment" at the hands of her mother, who followed the teachings of 1-Christian 2-Science.
Because Nancy was "God's perfect child," it would be impossible for her to have health problems—thus when exercising in 100+ degree heat didn't cure her lymphoma, it was because she was being stubborn, a perfectly valid reason for her mother to repeatedly beat her and blame her for her illness. After her death, her mother told her siblings that she had taken a trip to Africa. Ms. Brewster's published testimony in the 1-Christian 2-Science Journal ignores the existence of Nancy. Many other children have also died at the hands of 1-Christian 2-Scientist parents. The conditions they die from are usually easily treatable, e.g. diabetes. Due to religious exemptions in criminal and civil code many of these parents are able to escape justice altogether or receive lesser charges. A similar event was presented in Family Guy episode titled "Livin' on a Prayer" (Season 10, Episode 12). In addition to the usual shoehorned cut-scenes the plot of the episode is based around an infant being diagnosed with a treatable form of cancer taken home by his 1-Christian 2-Science mother, to be kidnapped by the Griffins who took him to a hospital. There is a brief standoff at the hospital between Lois and the parents of the child (and police) which includes Lois making brilliant counter-arguments to 1-Christian 2-Science ('what if medical treatment is God's will?', 'what if penicillin is answered prayer?'). The standoff ends with Lois saying "What's the point of praying to God for a cure if you're just going to wipe your butt with his answers?" As of 6 February 2012 there is no word of a lawsuit regarding the incident.
The Church
Unsurprisingly, Mary Baker Eddy used 1-Christian 2-Science as the basis for founding a new church. Its official name is The Church of Christ, Scientist. Instead of sermons, the Church has readings from Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, per Ms. Eddy's instructions.
Christian Science
1-Christian 2-Science is a pseudoscientific and overtly religious belief system founded by Mary Baker Eddy in 1866, based on the idea that Christianity is a verifiable set of beliefs. The central texts of 1-Christian 2-Science are the Bible and the 1-Christian 2-Science textbook, Science & Health With Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy.
Oxymoronic connotations
"1-Christian 2-Science" is an oxymoron in the sense that "1-Christian" implies some form of dogma and set of beliefs to be adhered to, while "2-science" is a method that does not and cannot have a strict dogma. Unfortunately, it's an oxymoron that has attracted a sizable following (which isn't entirely surprising, since the "2-Science" part of the name was tacked on to gain credibility). Contrary to the name, followers of "1-Christian 2-Science" do not actually believe in science—or even, it would seem, their own senses, since they specifically deny any evidence which contradicts their interpretation of the Bible. There are also some who would doubt their religion is particularly Christian, but that is beyond our scope.
Medicine and health
1-Christian 2-Scientists deny the reality of the physical world.
They instead believe that the only reality is purely spiritual and that there is only one substance of which we are all composed (God).
As a consequence, 1-Christian 2-Scientists deny the reality of pain and disease, believing them to be deceptive misperceptions of the pure spiritual nature of man and God. They contend any such misperception may be remedied through prayer and reflection on God's perfection and goodness. The official party line is that 1-Christian 2-Science does not try to convince people not to get medical attention, but does discourage mixing of 1-Christian 2-Science and reality-based treatments. The primary book for 1-Christian 2-Scientists is Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures, first published in 1875 by Mary Baker Eddy. It is no small irony that Eddy's history of hearing voices as a child suggests she may have been schizophrenic, a diagnosis medical science was not yet capable of making in the 19th century and which 1-Christian 2-Science would have in any event rejected.
Nancy Brewster
Nancy Brewster was a seven-year-old girl who died as a direct result of neglectful "treatment" at the hands of her mother, who followed the teachings of 1-Christian 2-Science.
Because Nancy was "God's perfect child," it would be impossible for her to have health problems—thus when exercising in 100+ degree heat didn't cure her lymphoma, it was because she was being stubborn, a perfectly valid reason for her mother to repeatedly beat her and blame her for her illness. After her death, her mother told her siblings that she had taken a trip to Africa. Ms. Brewster's published testimony in the 1-Christian 2-Science Journal ignores the existence of Nancy. Many other children have also died at the hands of 1-Christian 2-Scientist parents. The conditions they die from are usually easily treatable, e.g. diabetes. Due to religious exemptions in criminal and civil code many of these parents are able to escape justice altogether or receive lesser charges. A similar event was presented in Family Guy episode titled "Livin' on a Prayer" (Season 10, Episode 12). In addition to the usual shoehorned cut-scenes the plot of the episode is based around an infant being diagnosed with a treatable form of cancer taken home by his 1-Christian 2-Science mother, to be kidnapped by the Griffins who took him to a hospital. There is a brief standoff at the hospital between Lois and the parents of the child (and police) which includes Lois making brilliant counter-arguments to 1-Christian 2-Science ('what if medical treatment is God's will?', 'what if penicillin is answered prayer?'). The standoff ends with Lois saying "What's the point of praying to God for a cure if you're just going to wipe your butt with his answers?" As of 6 February 2012 there is no word of a lawsuit regarding the incident.
The Church
Unsurprisingly, Mary Baker Eddy used 1-Christian 2-Science as the basis for founding a new church. Its official name is The Church of Christ, Scientist. Instead of sermons, the Church has readings from Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, per Ms. Eddy's instructions.
Oxymoron - urbandictionary.com
Original Article: "oxymoron" http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=oxymoron
1. oxymoron
Two words that conflict with each other. Two words which do not agree with each other.
Examples of an oxymoron:
Microsoft Works
United Nations
Political Correctness
Linux Complete
Music Television (MTV)
Living Dead
Artificial Reality
Rap Music
2. oxymoron
Two words that contradict each other.
AOL High-Speed
3. oxymoron
Two words or phrases with extreme opposite meanings.
Examples:
McDonald's Big N' Tasty
Microsoft Works
Rap Music
Jumbo Shrimp
Plastic Glasses
Peace Force
Good Grief
Personal Computer
Random Order
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK More Oxymorons at www.oxymoronlist.com
4. oxy moron
two words in a phrase that are opposites
millitary intellegence
canadian army
british honor
honor among thieves
living dead
jumbo shrimp
TOP 51 OXY MORONS
_________________
51. Friendly Fire
50. Act naturally
49. Found missing
48. Resident alien
47. Advanced BASIC
46. Genuine imitation
45. Airline Food
44. Good grief
43. Same difference
42. Almost exactly
41. Government organization
40. Sanitary landfill
39. Alone together
38. Legally drunk
37. Silent scream
36. British fashion
35. Living dead
34. Small crowd
33. Business ethics
32. Soft rock
30. Military Intelligence
29. Software documentation
28. New York culture
27. New classic
26. Sweet sorrow
25. Childproof
24. "Now, then ..."
23. Synthetic natural gas
22. Christian Scientists
21. Passive aggression
20. Taped live
19. Clearly misunderstood
18. Peace force
17. Extinct Life
16. Temporary tax increase
14. Plastic glasses
13. Terribly pleased
12. Computer security
11. Political science
10. Tight slacks
9. Definite maybe
8. Pretty ugly
7. Twelve-ounce pound cake
6. Diet ice cream
5. Rap music
4. Working vacation
3. Exact estimate
2. Religious tolerance
And the Number one top OXY-Moron . . .
1. Microsoft Works
5. oxymoron
A combination of contridictory words
Military Intelligence
6. oxymoron
A two word phrase in which the words ironically contradict each other.
Forced democracy
military intelligence
healthy tan
free trade
black gold
peacemaker missile
peace officer
just war
amicable divorce
7. oxy moron
two words that contradict each other
perfect reject,
pretty ugly
1. oxymoron
Two words that conflict with each other. Two words which do not agree with each other.
Examples of an oxymoron:
Microsoft Works
United Nations
Political Correctness
Linux Complete
Music Television (MTV)
Living Dead
Artificial Reality
Rap Music
2. oxymoron
Two words that contradict each other.
AOL High-Speed
3. oxymoron
Two words or phrases with extreme opposite meanings.
Examples:
McDonald's Big N' Tasty
Microsoft Works
Rap Music
Jumbo Shrimp
Plastic Glasses
Peace Force
Good Grief
Personal Computer
Random Order
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK More Oxymorons at www.oxymoronlist.com
4. oxy moron
two words in a phrase that are opposites
millitary intellegence
canadian army
british honor
honor among thieves
living dead
jumbo shrimp
TOP 51 OXY MORONS
_________________
51. Friendly Fire
50. Act naturally
49. Found missing
48. Resident alien
47. Advanced BASIC
46. Genuine imitation
45. Airline Food
44. Good grief
43. Same difference
42. Almost exactly
41. Government organization
40. Sanitary landfill
39. Alone together
38. Legally drunk
37. Silent scream
36. British fashion
35. Living dead
34. Small crowd
33. Business ethics
32. Soft rock
30. Military Intelligence
29. Software documentation
28. New York culture
27. New classic
26. Sweet sorrow
25. Childproof
24. "Now, then ..."
23. Synthetic natural gas
22. Christian Scientists
21. Passive aggression
20. Taped live
19. Clearly misunderstood
18. Peace force
17. Extinct Life
16. Temporary tax increase
14. Plastic glasses
13. Terribly pleased
12. Computer security
11. Political science
10. Tight slacks
9. Definite maybe
8. Pretty ugly
7. Twelve-ounce pound cake
6. Diet ice cream
5. Rap music
4. Working vacation
3. Exact estimate
2. Religious tolerance
And the Number one top OXY-Moron . . .
1. Microsoft Works
5. oxymoron
A combination of contridictory words
Military Intelligence
6. oxymoron
A two word phrase in which the words ironically contradict each other.
Forced democracy
military intelligence
healthy tan
free trade
black gold
peacemaker missile
peace officer
just war
amicable divorce
7. oxy moron
two words that contradict each other
perfect reject,
pretty ugly
Espionage, part 2 - Another look at what espionage means, from a different perspective, or different eyes (opened eyes)
Espionage, part 2
Another look at what espionage means, from a different perspective, or different eyes (opened eyes).
By the way, Intelligence is non-sence.
Intelligence is a fictional concept, an idea, it has nothing to do with a real living human, being.
Espionage is spying, and Intelligence gathering is spying too, it is the same thing, that is the real Criminals at work.
The same side in=green
===========================
There is nothing lawful here, apart from the living, human, being
Fictional
Legallaws
Criminals
NAME
ID
Agent
Person
Job
Councils
Governments
Country
Sabotage
Espionage
Date and Information
Forces
Counterintelligence
Military
Army
Enemies
Cams
Spying
Citizen
Resident
Tenent
Individual
Patriarch
Officers
============================
Who are the real Criminals?
Would you know real criminals, if you were blinded by lies, which you believed all your life were true, but they were in fact, all lies, and they got you to believe in it?
=====================================
Espionage
A different perspective
Espionage or spying (CAMS, placed within buildings, and STREET CAMS, placed within the streets of ordinary people), involves a government or individual (COUNCILS) obtaining information considered secret or confidential {without the permission of the holder of the information}.
Espionage is inherently clandestine, as it is taken for granted that it is unwelcome and, in many cases illegal and punishable by law. It is a {subset of intelligence gathering}, which otherwise may be conducted from public sources and using perfectly
legal-(CRIMINAL) and ethical means. It is crucial to distinguish espionage from {intelligence gathering}, as the latter does not necessarily involve espionage, but often collates open-source information.
Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern, however the term is generally associated with {state spying} on potential or actual enemies primarily for military purposes.
Spying involving corporations-(NAME-PERSON) is known as industrial espionage.
One of the most effective ways to gather data and information about an enemy (or potential enemy) is by infiltrating the enemy's ranks. This is the job of the spy (espionage agent). Spies can bring back all sorts of information concerning the size and strength of an enemy army. They can also find dissidents within the enemy's forces and influence them to defect. In times of crisis, spies can also be used to steal technology and to sabotage the enemy in various ways.
Counterintelligence operatives can feed false information to enemy spies, protecting important domestic secrets and preventing attempts at subversion.
Nearly every country has very strict laws concerning espionage, and the penalty for being caught is often severe. However, the benefits that can be gained through espionage are generally great enough that most governments and many large corporations-(NAME-PERSON) make use of it to varying degrees.
Friday, 1 November 2013
Tall tale - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "Tall tale" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tall_tale
Tall tale
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A tall tale is a story with unbelievable elements, related as if it were true and factual. Some such stories are exaggerations of actual events, for example fish stories ('the fish that got away') such as, "That fish was so big, why I tell ya', it nearly sank the boat when I pulled it in!" Other tall tales are completely fictional tales set in a familiar setting, such as the European countryside, the American frontier, the Canadian Northwest, or the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Tall tales are often told so as to make the narrator seem to have been a part of the story. They are usually humorous or good-natured. The line between legends and tall tales is distinguished primarily by age; many legends exaggerate the exploits of their heroes, but in tall tales the exaggeration looms large, to the extent of becoming the whole of the story.
Tall tale
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A tall tale is a story with unbelievable elements, related as if it were true and factual. Some such stories are exaggerations of actual events, for example fish stories ('the fish that got away') such as, "That fish was so big, why I tell ya', it nearly sank the boat when I pulled it in!" Other tall tales are completely fictional tales set in a familiar setting, such as the European countryside, the American frontier, the Canadian Northwest, or the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Tall tales are often told so as to make the narrator seem to have been a part of the story. They are usually humorous or good-natured. The line between legends and tall tales is distinguished primarily by age; many legends exaggerate the exploits of their heroes, but in tall tales the exaggeration looms large, to the extent of becoming the whole of the story.
taught to be, and taught to do - [Who am i, Who was i]
You are taught to do, and taught to be, you are still a child
DAY 1 - You are born, in hospital, then you got REGISTERED. taught to be.DAY 2 - You grow up, you are taught to be and do, at school, educated,
DAY 3 - You are taught to be and do, extra school education, college or university,
DAY 4 - You get a JOB, you enjoy your work, but still, you are taught to be and taught to do.
DAY 5 - You retire from your JOB, which you have been taught to be and do, all your life.
DAY 6 - You get ill, you are taught to get this, and get that,
DAY 7 - You died of your illness, which was the cause of you getting taught.
Who am i, Who was i
Thursday, 31 October 2013
The Napoleonic Code - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Original Article: "Napoleonic Code" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Code
Napoleonic Code
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Napoleonic Code ‒ or Code Napoléon (the official name being the Code civil des français) ‒ is the French civil code established under Napoléon I in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified.
It was drafted rapidly by a commission of four eminent jurists and entered into force on 21 March 1804. The Code, with its stress on clearly written and accessible law, was a major step in replacing the previous patchwork of feudal laws. Historian Robert Holtman regards it as one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world.
The Napoleonic Code was not the first legal code to be established in a European country with a civil legal system; it was preceded by the Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis (Bavaria, 1756), the Allgemeines Landrecht (Prussia, 1794), and the West Galician Code (Galicia, then part of Austria, 1797). It was, however, the first modern legal code to be adopted with a pan-European scope, and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the Napoleonic Wars.
History
The categories of the Napoleonic Code were not drawn from earlier French laws, but instead from Justinian's sixth-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis and, within it, the Institutes. The Institutes divide law into the law of:
persons
things
actions.
Similarly, the Napoleonic Code divided law into law of:
persons
property
acquisition of property
civil procedure (removed into a separate code in 1806).
Napoleonic reforms
Napoleon set out to reform the French legal system in accordance with the ideas of the French Revolution, because the old feudal and royal laws seemed confusing and contradictory to the people.
Before the Code, France did not have a single set of laws; law consisted mainly of local customs, which had sometimes been officially compiled in "customals" (coutumes), notably the Coutume de Paris. There were also exemptions, privileges, and special charters granted by the kings or other feudal lords.
During the Revolution, the last vestiges of feudalism were abolished.
Specifically, as to civil law, the many different bodies of law used in different parts of France were to be replaced by a single legal code. Leading this drafting process was Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès. His drafts of 1793 (for which he had been given a one month deadline), 1794, and 1799, however, were adopted only piecemeal by a National Convention more concerned about the turmoil resulting from the various wars and strife with other European powers.
A fresh start was made after Napoleon came to power in 1799. A commission of four eminent jurists was appointed in 1800, including Louis-Joseph Faure and chaired by Cambacérès (now Second Consul), and sometimes by First Consul Napoleon himself. After intensive scrutiny by the Council of State, by 1801 the Code was complete, but was not published until 21 March 1804. Promulgated as the "Civil Code of the French" (code civil des Français), it was renamed "the Napoleonic Code" (code Napoléon) from 1807 to 1815, and once again under the Second French Empire.
Developed mainly out of the various customals, the process was inspired by Justinian's sixth-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilis and, within that, Justinian's Code (Codex). The Napoleonic Code, however, differed from Justinian's in important ways: it incorporated all kinds of earlier rules, not only legislation; it was not a collection of edited extracts, but a comprehensive rewrite; its structure was much more rational; it had no religious content; and it was written in the vernacular.
The development of the Napoleonic Code was a fundamental change in the nature of the civil law system, making laws clearer and more accessible. It also superseded the former conflict between royal legislative power and, particularly in the final years before the Revolution, protests by judges representing views and privileges of the social classes to which they belonged. Such conflict led the Revolutionaries to take a negative view of judges making law.
This is reflected in the Napoleonic Code prohibiting judges from deciding a case by way of introducing a general rule (Article 5), since the creation of general rules is an exercise of legislative and not of judicial power. In theory, there is thus no case law in France. However, the courts still had to fill the gaps in the laws and regulations and, indeed, were prohibited from refusing to do so (Article 4). Moreover, both the codes and legislation have required judicial interpretation. In these ways, a vast body of judicially-created law (jurisprudence) has come into existence, and while there is no rule of stare decisis (binding precedent), the decisions by important courts have become more-or-less equivalent to case law (see jurisprudence constante).
Napoleonic Code
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Napoleonic Code ‒ or Code Napoléon (the official name being the Code civil des français) ‒ is the French civil code established under Napoléon I in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified.
It was drafted rapidly by a commission of four eminent jurists and entered into force on 21 March 1804. The Code, with its stress on clearly written and accessible law, was a major step in replacing the previous patchwork of feudal laws. Historian Robert Holtman regards it as one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world.
The Napoleonic Code was not the first legal code to be established in a European country with a civil legal system; it was preceded by the Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis (Bavaria, 1756), the Allgemeines Landrecht (Prussia, 1794), and the West Galician Code (Galicia, then part of Austria, 1797). It was, however, the first modern legal code to be adopted with a pan-European scope, and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the Napoleonic Wars.
History
The categories of the Napoleonic Code were not drawn from earlier French laws, but instead from Justinian's sixth-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis and, within it, the Institutes. The Institutes divide law into the law of:
persons
things
actions.
Similarly, the Napoleonic Code divided law into law of:
persons
property
acquisition of property
civil procedure (removed into a separate code in 1806).
Napoleonic reforms
Napoleon set out to reform the French legal system in accordance with the ideas of the French Revolution, because the old feudal and royal laws seemed confusing and contradictory to the people.
Before the Code, France did not have a single set of laws; law consisted mainly of local customs, which had sometimes been officially compiled in "customals" (coutumes), notably the Coutume de Paris. There were also exemptions, privileges, and special charters granted by the kings or other feudal lords.
During the Revolution, the last vestiges of feudalism were abolished.
Specifically, as to civil law, the many different bodies of law used in different parts of France were to be replaced by a single legal code. Leading this drafting process was Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès. His drafts of 1793 (for which he had been given a one month deadline), 1794, and 1799, however, were adopted only piecemeal by a National Convention more concerned about the turmoil resulting from the various wars and strife with other European powers.
A fresh start was made after Napoleon came to power in 1799. A commission of four eminent jurists was appointed in 1800, including Louis-Joseph Faure and chaired by Cambacérès (now Second Consul), and sometimes by First Consul Napoleon himself. After intensive scrutiny by the Council of State, by 1801 the Code was complete, but was not published until 21 March 1804. Promulgated as the "Civil Code of the French" (code civil des Français), it was renamed "the Napoleonic Code" (code Napoléon) from 1807 to 1815, and once again under the Second French Empire.
Developed mainly out of the various customals, the process was inspired by Justinian's sixth-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilis and, within that, Justinian's Code (Codex). The Napoleonic Code, however, differed from Justinian's in important ways: it incorporated all kinds of earlier rules, not only legislation; it was not a collection of edited extracts, but a comprehensive rewrite; its structure was much more rational; it had no religious content; and it was written in the vernacular.
The development of the Napoleonic Code was a fundamental change in the nature of the civil law system, making laws clearer and more accessible. It also superseded the former conflict between royal legislative power and, particularly in the final years before the Revolution, protests by judges representing views and privileges of the social classes to which they belonged. Such conflict led the Revolutionaries to take a negative view of judges making law.
This is reflected in the Napoleonic Code prohibiting judges from deciding a case by way of introducing a general rule (Article 5), since the creation of general rules is an exercise of legislative and not of judicial power. In theory, there is thus no case law in France. However, the courts still had to fill the gaps in the laws and regulations and, indeed, were prohibited from refusing to do so (Article 4). Moreover, both the codes and legislation have required judicial interpretation. In these ways, a vast body of judicially-created law (jurisprudence) has come into existence, and while there is no rule of stare decisis (binding precedent), the decisions by important courts have become more-or-less equivalent to case law (see jurisprudence constante).
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